This is a working overview of semax, written for readers who want more than a one-paragraph summary but less than a textbook.
Reviewed 2026-01-17. Anything still debated is marked as such rather than presented as settled.
纯度评估以反相高效液相色谱为主，通过主峰面积百分比给出粗略结果，再配合电喷雾质谱核对分子量。氨基酸分析可验证组成比例，手性色谱或毛细管电泳用于检查残基构型。常见杂质包括缺失序列的短肽、氧化产物与二聚体。由于多数市售品不附带完整检验报告，独立第三方检测常被用来核实标称值。
从分子层面看，Semax 是线性七肽，没有二硫键、糖基或脂链修饰，N 端为游离氨基，C 端为游离羧基。分子含组氨酸与谷氨酸侧链，因此在水和甲醇等极性溶剂中溶解良好，在非极性溶剂中溶解有限。计算分子量约为 814 Da，与其质子化离子的质荷比吻合，可用于质谱确认。
稳定性主要由水解与氧化两条路径支配。肽键在中性或弱酸性条件下相对稳定，遇到强碱或长时间高温则明显断裂；甲硫氨酸侧链容易被氧化成亚砜，使主峰前移并拉低实际含量。金属离子、光照和反复冻融会进一步促进降解或聚集。冻干粉在低温避光条件下可存放较长时间，配制后的水溶液通常需要冷藏并尽快用完。
该化合物于二十世纪八十年代在俄罗斯被开发，相关工作由俄罗斯科学院分子遗传学研究所的研究团队主导。开发目标并非复制 ACTH 的完整激素活性，而是寻找保留其神经作用方向、同时去除促肾上腺皮质激素释放效应的短肽片段。研究记录显示，这一方向促成了多个相关短肽的合成与筛选，而 Semax 是其中被研究最广泛的一个。当地文献常以 Семакс 这一名称指代它。
研究兴趣主要集中在神经营养因子相关的路径上，包括脑源性神经营养因子与神经生长因子的表达变化。部分实验报告称在特定条件下观察到这些因子的水平上升，但具体信号通路和剂量依赖关系仍未完全厘清。多数公开数据来自细胞模型和动物实验，人体对照研究数量有限。因此，该化合物的作用机制在文献中属于活跃讨论，而非已经确立的定论。
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| 分子式 | C37H51N9O10S | 游离碱形式 |
| 等电点 | 约 6.5 | 估算值，随缓冲体系变化 |
| 主要降解途径 | 水解与氧化 | 侧链氧化最为常见 |
| 溶液储存 | 2 至 8 摄氏度避光 | 避免反复冻融 |
| 常规分析手段 | 反相色谱与质谱联用 | 氨基酸分析辅助核对 |
Lyophilised powder is normally kept at -20 °C in a desiccated container, with some suppliers recommending -80 °C for long-term archival storage. Repeated freeze-thaw cycles are the most common cause of avoidable loss, so aliquoting before freezing reduces variability between working sessions. Dissolved peptide is far less stable than the dry solid and is usually prepared fresh or held briefly at 4 °C. Aqueous solutions support both hydrolysis of the backbone and oxidation of the N-terminal methionine, and these two routes dominate degradation under ordinary laboratory conditions.
Identity and purity are confirmed with reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography, typically monitored at 214 nanometres where the peptide bond absorbs. Mass spectrometry, either electrospray or MALDI-TOF, verifies molecular mass against the theoretical value and detects truncation or adduct formation. Amino acid analysis and peptide mapping provide additional confirmation when required. The most frequently reported impurities are deletion sequences from incomplete coupling, methionine sulfoxide from oxidation, and dimeric species formed through non-covalent aggregation. Impurity profiles depend strongly on the synthesis and purification route chosen by the producer.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide whose sequence is Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. The first four residues correspond to the ACTH(4-10) fragment, while the terminal Pro-Gly-Pro extension was added to improve metabolic stability. Its molecular formula is C37H51N9O10S and its monoisotopic mass is approximately 813.9 Da. The compound is classified as a peptide research chemical and as a registered pharmaceutical product in Russia, but it does not hold marketing approval in the European Union or the United States. Naming conventions vary across supplier catalogs.
Development of the compound took place in the Soviet Union during the 1980s, largely through peptide research groups affiliated with the Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute and Moscow State University. Investigators screened fragments of adrenocorticotropic hormone for activity on the central nervous system while attempting to separate cognitive effects from hormonal ones. The shortened sequence was selected because it retained behavioral activity in animal models without stimulating corticosteroid release. Early publications described the molecule as an ACTH(4-10) analog.
Published research on this peptide originates mainly from Russian laboratories, and the wider international literature is comparatively thin. Studies have used rodent models of stroke, hypoxia, and memory tasks, with a smaller number of human trials reported. Reported outcomes include changes in attention and memory measures, along with effects on neurotrophic factor expression in some experiments. Small sample sizes, inconsistent dosing protocols, and limited independent replication are widely noted limitations, so the strength of the clinical evidence remains an open question.
{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\mathrm {M} _{p}({\ce {OH}})_{q}&\leftrightharpoons \mathrm {M} _{p}({\ce {OH}})_{q-1}^{+}+{\ce {OH-}}\\K_{\mathrm {b} }&={\frac {[\mathrm {M} _{p}({\ce {OH}})_{q-1}^{+}][{\ce {OH-}}]}{[\mathrm {M} _{p}({\ce {OH}})_{q}]}}\\\end{aligned}}}
== Mathematical models == Proprioceptors transfer the mechanical state of the body into patterns of neural activity. This transfer can be modeled mathematically, for example to better understand the internal workings of a proprioceptor or to provide more realistic feedback in neuromechanical simulations. Various proprioceptor models of complexity have been developed. They range from simple phenomenological models to complex structural models, in which the mathematical elements correspond to anatomical features of the proprioceptor. The focus has been on muscle spindles, but Golgi tendon organs and insects' hair plates have been modeled too.
== Five-membered heterocyclic amines == The compound pyrrolidine is composed of molecules that contain a saturated ring of five atoms. This cyclic structure is composed of one atom of nitrogen and four carbon. Nicotine is a molecule containing a pyrrolidine ring attached to a ring of pyridine (other heterocyclic amine). Nicotine belongs to a group of compounds known as alkaloids, which are naturally occurring organic compounds with nitrogen in them. Pyrrole is another compound made up of molecules with a five-membered heterocyclic ring. These molecules are unsaturated and contain a nitrogen atom in the ring. Four pyrrole rings are joined in a ring structure called a porphyrin. The rings of porphyrin are components of hemoglobin, myoglobin, vitamin B12, chlorophyll, and cytochromes. In the centers of heme in hemoglobin, myoglobin, and cytochromes, iron is an ion; in the first two, iron ion is bound to oxygen.
== Voting Patterns == In the 2022 election, 62 percent of voters in Yavne voted for the parties of the right-wing coalition led by Benjamin Netanyahu, while 36 percent voted for the parties of the center-left coalition led by Yair Lapid and 0.1 percent voted for the Arab parties.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Frydman RB, Tomaro ML, Frydman B (1972). "Pyrrolooxygenase: its action on tryptophan-containing enzymes and peptides". Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 284 (1): 80–9. doi:10.1016/0005-2744(72)90047-2. PMID 4403729.
Aagenaes syndrome Acroangiodermatitis (acroangiodermatitis of Mali, Mali acroangiodermatitis, Pseudo-Kaposi's sarcoma) Acrocyanosis Acute hemorrhagic edema of infancy (acute hemorrhagic edema of childhood, Finkelstein's disease, infantile postinfectious iris-like purpura and edema, medallion-like purpura, purpura en cocarde avec oedema, Seidlmayer syndrome) Arterial insufficiency ulcer (ischemic ulcer) Arteriosclerosis obliterans Bier spots Blueberry muffin baby Bonnet–Dechaume–Blanc syndrome (Wyburn–Mason syndrome) Bullous lymphedema Bullous small vessel vasculitis (bullous variant of small vessel vasculitis) Calciphylaxis Caput succedaneum Cholesterol embolus (warfarin blue toe syndrome) Cobb syndrome Corona phlebectatica Cryofibrinogenemic purpura Cryoglobulinemic purpura Cryoglobulinemic vasculitis Cutaneous small-vessel vasculitis (cutaneous leukocytoclastic angiitis, cutaneous leukocytoclastic vasculitis, cutaneous necrotizing venulitis, hypersensitivity angiitis) Deep venous thrombosis Disseminated intravascular coagulation Doucas and Kapetanakis pigmented purpura Drug-induced purpura Drug-induced thrombocytopenic purpura Eczematid-like purpura of Doucas and Kapetanakis Epidemic dropsy Erythema elevatum diutinum Erythromelalgia (acromelalgia, erythermalgia) Factitial lymphedema (hysterical edema) Fibrinolysis syndrome (defibrinating syndrome, hypofibrinogenemia) Food-induced purpura Generalized essential telangiectasia (general essential telangiectasia) Giant-cell arteritis Gougerot–Blum syndrome (pigmented purpuric lichenoid dermatitis, pigmented purpuric lichenoid dermatitis of Gougerot and Blum) Granulomatosis with polyangiitis Harlequin color change Hematopoietic ulcer Hennekam syndrome (Hennekam lymphangiectasia-lymphedema syndrome, intestinal lymphagiectasia-lymphedema-mental retardation syndrome) Henoch–Schönlein purpura (anaphylactoid purpura, purpura rheumatica, Schönlein–Henoch purpura) Hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia (Osler's disease, Osler–Weber–Rendu disease) Idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura (autoimmune thrombocytopenic purpura, Werlhof's disease) IgA vasculitis Kawasaki's disease (mucocutaneous lymph node syndrome) Levamisole-induced vasculitis Lichen aureus (lichen purpuricus) Livedo racemosa Livedo reticularis Livedoid dermatitis (embolia cutis medicamentosa, Nicolau syndrome) Livedoid vasculopathy (atrophie blanche, livedo reticularis with summer ulceration, livedoid vasculitis, PURPLE syndrome, segmental hyalinizing vasculitis) Lymphedema praecox Lymphedema–distichiasis syndrome Maffucci syndrome Majocchi's disease (purpura annularis telangiectodes, purpura annularis telangiectodes of Majocchi) Malignant atrophic papulosis (Degos' disease) Marshall–White syndrome Meige lymphedema Microscopic polyangiitis (microscopic polyarteritis, microscopic polyarteritis nodosa) Mondor's disease (Mondor's syndrome of superficial thrombophlebitis) Neuropathic ulcer (mal perforans) Njolstad syndrome Nonne–Milroy–Meige syndrome (hereditary lymphedema, Milroy disease) Obstructive purpura Orthostatic purpura (stasis purpura) Painful bruising syndrome (autoerythrocyte sensitization, Gardner–Diamond syndrome, psychogenic purpura) Parkes Weber syndrome Paroxysmal hand hematoma (Achenbach syndrome) Paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria Polyarteritis nodosa (panarteritis nodosa, periarteritis nodosa) Postcardiotomy syndrome Perinatal gangrene of the buttock Pigmentary purpuric eruptions (progressive pigmentary dermatosis, progressive pigmenting purpura, purpura pigmentosa chronica) Postinflammatory lymphedema Postmastectomy lymphangiosarcoma (Stewart–Treves syndrome) Purpura fulminans (purpura gangrenosa) Purpura secondary to clotting disorders Purpuric agave dermatitis Raynaud phenomenon Raynaud's disease (primary Raynaud's phenomenon) Reactive angioendotheliomatosis Schamberg's disease (progressive pigmentary dermatosis of Schamberg, purpura pigmentosa progressiva, Schamberg's purpura) Secondary lymphedema Septic thrombophlebitis Sinusoidal hemangioma Sneddon's syndrome (idiopathic livedo reticularis with cerebrovascular accidents) Solar purpura (actinic purpura, senile purpura) Stasis dermatitis (congestion eczema, gravitational dermatitis, gravitational eczema, stasis eczema, varicose eczema) Superficial thrombophlebitis Takayasu arteritis (aortic arch syndrome, pulseless disease) Temporal arteritis (cranial arteritis, Horton's disease) Thromboangiitis obliterans (Buerger's disease) Thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura (Moschcowitz syndrome) Traumatic purpura Trousseau's syndrome Unilateral nevoid telangiectasia (nevoid telangiectasia) Urticarial vasculitis (chronic urticaria as a manifestation of venulitis, hypocomplementemic urticarial vasculitis syndrome, hypocomplementemic vasculitis, unusual lupus-like syndrome) Venous insufficiency ulceration Waldenström hyperglobulinemic purpura (purpura hyperglobulinemica) Waldenström macroglobulinemia Yellow nail syndrome (primary lymphedema associated with yellow nails and pleural effusion)
== Persons influential in relation to diabetes mellitus == Paul Langerhans Joseph von Mering Oskar Minkowski Edward Albert Sharpey-Schafer Frederick Banting Charles Best James Collip Harold Percival Himsworth Thorburn Brailsford Robertson
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
In April 2002, Yosri Fouda of Al Jazeera met al-Qaeda member Khalid Sheikh Mohammed and bin al-Shibh, who were in hiding, and they admitted to him their involvement in the attacks. Mohammed had been an organizer and financier of al-Qaeda's 1993 bombing of the World Trade Center, and he was the uncle of Ramzi Yousef, the lead bomber in that attack. Mohammed and Yousef planned another terrorist attack, the Bojinka plot, for January 1995. Despite its failure, and Yousef's imprisonment by the U.S. afterwards, the plot would influence the later September 11 attacks. The 2004 9/11 Commission Report determined that the animosity that Mohammed, the principal architect of 9/11, felt towards the U.S. had stemmed from his "violent disagreement with U.S. foreign policy favoring Israel."
== Advantages == No risk for infections Antigen presentation by both MHC class I and class II molecules Polarise T-cell response toward type 1 or type 2 Immune response focused on the antigen of interest Ease of development and production Stability for storage and shipping Cost-effectiveness Obviates need for peptide synthesis, expression and purification of recombinant proteins and use of toxic adjuvants Long-term persistence of immunogen In vivo expression ensures protein more closely resembles normal eukaryotic structure, with accompanying post-translational modifications
== Synthetic skin == Another form of "artificial skin" has been created out of flexible semiconductor materials that can sense touch for those with prosthetic limbs. The artificial skin is anticipated to augment robotics in conducting rudimentary jobs that would be considered delicate and require sensitive "touch". Scientists found that by applying a layer of rubber with two parallel electrodes that stored electrical charges inside of the artificial skin, tiny amounts of pressure could be detected. When pressure is exerted, the electrical charge in the rubber is changed and the change is detected by the electrodes. However, the film is so small that when pressure is applied to the skin, the molecules have nowhere to move and become entangled. The molecules also fail to return to their original shape when the pressure is removed. A recent development in the synthetic skin technique has been made by imparting the color changing properties to the thin layer of silicon with the help of artificial ridges which reflect a very specific wavelength of light. By tuning the spaces between these ridges, color to be reflected by the skin can be controlled. This technology can be used in color-shifting camouflages and sensors that can detect otherwise imperceptible defects in buildings, bridges, and aircraft.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
电喷雾或基质辅助激光解吸电离质谱是常用手段，测得的质子化离子质荷比可换算为分子量。结果与理论值落在合理误差内，才支持结构一致的判断。
甲硫氨酸侧链含硫醚，在氧气、光照或金属离子存在时容易被氧化。氧化产物极性略增，常在色谱图上表现为主峰之前的肩峰或前伸峰。
通常建议冷藏避光，并在较短时间内使用。不存在适用于所有配方的统一期限，具体取决于浓度、缓冲体系与容器材质。
不是。Semax 是完全人工合成的七肽，自然界中没有对应的已知肽段。它的设计灵感来自促肾上腺皮质激素片段 ACTH(4-10)，但序列经过了替换和延长。