This is a working overview of heptapeptide, written for readers who want more than a one-paragraph summary but less than a textbook.
Reviewed 2025-10-01. Anything still debated is marked as such rather than presented as settled.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide with the sequence Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. Its chain combines the first seven residues of corticotropin with a C-terminal proline-glycine-proline extension, a modification intended to slow enzymatic breakdown. The free peptide has a molecular mass near 813.9 daltons. It belongs to the class of ACTH-derived fragments studied for central nervous system activity rather than for adrenal steroid stimulation. This structural relationship to a natural hormone fragment is the usual starting point for describing the compound in the literature.
Development took place during the 1980s at institutes of the Russian Academy of Sciences, where peptide fragments of ACTH were screened for cognitive and neuroprotective effects. The compound received regulatory approval in Russia as a nasal preparation, marketed for conditions such as ischemic stroke, transient ischemic attacks, and optic nerve disorders. Registration in other countries has not followed. Most published clinical reports originate from a small number of Russian research groups, and independent replication outside that setting remains limited. The regulatory status therefore differs sharply between Russia and the rest of the world.
Stability depends heavily on physical state. Lyophilized powder held dry, cold and dark retains its content over long periods, whereas dissolved peptide begins to change within days at room temperature. The most cited degradation route is oxidation of the methionine residue, which converts the peptide to a sulfoxide form that elutes differently on chromatography. Hydrolysis of amide bonds and adsorption onto container walls contribute smaller losses. Buffers that exclude oxygen from the headspace slow the oxidation pathway, but no single condition prevents all change indefinitely.
Practical handling follows from those properties. Bulk material is best divided into single-use portions soon after receipt, because each thaw exposes the whole container to moisture and temperature cycling. Vials should be allowed to reach room temperature before opening to prevent condensation on the powder. Low-binding plasticware reduces loss of dilute solutions, and sterile filtration is used when a preparation must remain free of microbial growth. Records of batch number, reconstitution date and storage history are what allow a later analytical result to be interpreted meaningfully.
Identity and purity of Semax are established mainly by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry. The chromatographic trace gives a purity estimate as a percentage of total peak area, while electrospray or matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization confirms the molecular mass against the calculated value. Amino acid analysis and sequence-specific fragmentation provide further confirmation when a supplier's chain of custody is unclear. Vendors frequently quote a purity figure without stating the detection wavelength or the integration method, which limits how far one number can be compared with another.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Sequence | Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro | Heptapeptide; ACTH(4-10) analog extended at C-terminus |
| Molecular mass | ~813.9 Da | Free peptide, unmodified |
| Appearance | White to off-white powder | Typical lyophilized solid |
| Solubility | Soluble in water and saline | Also soluble in common aqueous buffers |
| Storage (solid) | -20 °C, desiccated | Protect from moisture and repeated thawing |
Regulatory status varies sharply by country. Semax is registered for medical use in Russia, where it appears in formularies as a nasal solution, and it also holds registration in a small number of neighbouring states. It has no approval from the United States Food and Drug Administration or the European Medicines Agency, and it is not a scheduled controlled substance in most jurisdictions. Elsewhere it circulates mainly as laboratory material, so purity documentation comes from suppliers rather than from a national pharmacopoeia.
Semax is a synthetic peptide created in the Soviet Union during the early 1980s by researchers working in Moscow. It was built from the short adrenocorticotropic hormone fragment known as ACTH(4-10), and the chain was then extended with three additional amino acids. The resulting molecule was named semax and entered clinical use in Russia in 1994. It is generally described as a nootropic and neuroprotective agent rather than as a hormone analogue.
稳定性主要由水解与氧化两条路径支配。肽键在中性或弱酸性条件下相对稳定，遇到强碱或长时间高温则明显断裂；甲硫氨酸侧链容易被氧化成亚砜，使主峰前移并拉低实际含量。金属离子、光照和反复冻融会进一步促进降解或聚集。冻干粉在低温避光条件下可存放较长时间，配制后的水溶液通常需要冷藏并尽快用完。
纯度评估以反相高效液相色谱为主，通过主峰面积百分比给出粗略结果，再配合电喷雾质谱核对分子量。氨基酸分析可验证组成比例，手性色谱或毛细管电泳用于检查残基构型。常见杂质包括缺失序列的短肽、氧化产物与二聚体。由于多数市售品不附带完整检验报告，独立第三方检测常被用来核实标称值。
Clinical reports describe use in ischaemic stroke, transient ischaemic attack, optic nerve conditions, and cognitive complaints, but most of these studies are small and were conducted in a single region. Systematic reviews have generally described the evidence base as limited in size and variable in methodological quality. Randomised controlled data suitable for international regulatory assessment are scarce. As a result, major treatment guidelines outside Russia do not include the peptide, and interest in it remains largely research-driven rather than routine clinical.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide with the sequence Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. It is described in the literature as an analogue of the ACTH(4–10) fragment, a short N-terminal portion of adrenocorticotropic hormone that retains some neurotropic activity without the full hormonal effects of the parent peptide. The molecule carries a methionine residue at the N-terminus and two proline residues near the C-terminus, features that shape both its interactions with receptor systems and its chemical stability. The free peptide corresponds to the formula C37H51N9O10S and a molecular mass near 813.9 Da.
== EC numbers == Many serine/threonine protein kinases do not have their own individual EC numbers and use 2.7.11.1, "non-specific serine/threonine protein kinase". This entry is for any enzyme that phosphorylates proteins while converting ATP to ADP (i.e., ATP:protein phosphotransferases.) 2.7.11.37 "protein kinase" was the former generic placeholder and was split into several entries (including 2.7.11.1) in 2005. 2.7.11.70 "protamine kinase" was merged into 2.7.11.1 in 2004. 2.7.11.- is the generic level where all serine/threonine kinases should sit in.
Neuromodulation is "the alteration of nerve activity through targeted delivery of a stimulus, such as electrical stimulation or chemical agents, to specific neurological sites in the body". It is carried out to normalize – or modulate – nervous tissue function. Neuromodulation is an evolving therapy that can involve a range of electromagnetic stimuli, such as a magnetic field (rTMS), an electric current, or a drug delivered directly into the subdural space (intrathecal drug delivery). Emerging applications involve targeted introduction of genes or gene regulators and light (optogenetics), and by 2014, these had been at minimum demonstrated in mammalian models, or first-in-human data had been acquired. The most clinical experience has been with electrical stimulation. Neurotherapy, in modern use, is a synonym for neuromodulation. While neurotherapy may have a broader meaning, its modern definition focuses exclusively on technological methods that exert an energy-based effect on the development of a balanced nervous system in order to address symptom control and cure several conditions. Neurotherapy is a medical treatment that implements systemic targeted delivery of an energy stimulus or chemical agents to a specific neurological zone in the body to alter neuronal activity and stimulate neuroplasticity in a way that develops (or balances) a nervous system in order to treat different diseases, restore and/or to improve patients' physical strength, cognitive functions, and overall health.
=== 1945–1946 === After the end of the war, Amin al-Husayni managed to find his way to Egypt and stayed there until 1959, when he moved to Lebanon. On 22 March 1945, the Arab League was formed. In November 1945, on the urging of Egypt, its leading member, the then seven members of the Arab League (Lebanon, Syria, Iraq, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, and Yemen) reconstituted the Arab Higher Committee comprising twelve members as the supreme executive body of Palestinian Arabs in the territory of the British Mandate of Palestine. The committee was dominated by the Palestine Arab Party, controlled by the Husayni family, and was immediately recognised by Arab League countries. The Mandate government recognised the new committee two months later. In February 1946, Jamal al-Husayni returned from exile to Palestine and immediately set about reorganising and enlarging the committee, becoming its acting president. The members of the reconstituted committee as at April 1946 were:
Selenium is an essential mineral micronutrient for animals, though it is toxic in large doses. In plants, it sometimes occurs in toxic amounts as forage, e.g. locoweed. Selenium is a component of the amino acids selenocysteine and selenomethionine. In humans, selenium is a trace element nutrient that functions as cofactor for glutathione peroxidases and certain forms of thioredoxin reductase. Selenium-containing proteins are produced from inorganic selenium via the intermediacy of selenophosphate (PSeO33−).
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
=== Pharmacokinetics === Due to poor oral absorption, teicoplanin requires intravenous or intramuscular administration for systemic effect. Intramuscular administration achieves approximately 90% bioavailability. The drug exhibits high protein binding (90-95%) and is primarily eliminated through the kidneys unchanged, with minimal liver metabolism (2-3%) via hydroxylation. Clearance is reduced in patients with kidney impairment and is not significantly removed by hemodialysis. Teicoplanin exhibits a long half-life of 45-70 hours, allowing for once-daily dosing after loading doses. Although teicoplanin is primarily approved for intravenous and intramuscular use, several clinical and pharmacokinetic studies have explored its administration via the subcutaneous route. Subcutaneous teicoplanin has been reported as a feasible alternative in selected patients, particularly in outpatient, frail, or palliative care settings. Available evidence suggests that subcutaneous administration achieves pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic exposures comparable to intravenous dosing after appropriate loading, with good local tolerability. However, this route of administration remains off-label.
== Role of smoking == To date, all reported patients with SRIF have been heavy current smokers or ex-smokers, lending credence to the assertion that this condition is caused by smoking. There are no published reports of SRIF in never-smokers.
=== Other === Escitalopram may reduce premenstrual symptoms in women with premenstrual syndrome and premenstrual dysphoric disorder. It seems to be more effective when taken continuously compared to luteal phase administration. It is also occasionally prescribed off-label for insomnia secondary to a mental disorder, and vasomotor symptoms (hot flashes) associated with menopause.
== Post-presidency (2022–present) == At the end of his presidency, Duterte returned to Davao City and kept a low profile. Former President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo, a political ally of Duterte, convinced him in September 2023 to participate in the Philippine political landscape. In January 2023, Duterte resumed hosting his weekly show, Gikan sa Masa, Para sa Masa (From the Masses, For The Masses), on SMNI; co-hosted by Duterte's friend and spiritual adviser Pastor Apollo Quiboloy, Duterte would speak about current political issues besetting the country. Some of Duterte's strong statements in the show, such as his opposition to the expansion of the Enhanced Defense Cooperation Agreement (EDCA) sites in the Philippines, attracted attention and were covered by the media.
== Epidemiology == Obesity prevalence in Brazil has increased steadily over recent decades. Data from the Vigitel surveillance system indicate that the prevalence of obesity among adults increased from 11.8% in 2006 to 25.7% in 2024. During the same period, the prevalence of excess weight increased from 42.6% to 62.6%. The increase corresponds to a growth of approximately 118% in obesity prevalence over an eighteen-year period. No sustained decline was observed during the surveillance period. A systematic review and meta-analysis published in 2024 estimated the pooled prevalence of obesity among Brazilian adults at approximately 20%, with higher prevalence observed in the South and Southeast regions.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
== Research == Ben-Tal's research is in computational structural biology, with an emphasis on developing computational methods to study protein structure, function, motion, and evolution. His laboratory investigates molecular systems for which computational approaches can provide information that is difficult to obtain experimentally. His research has included computational studies of membrane proteins and transporters, including the human copper transporter 1, the ATP7B copper-transporting ATPase, and sodium/proton exchangers. His group has also developed methods for predicting the structures and motions of membrane proteins and has applied computational approaches to questions in protein evolution and drug discovery.
As of 2021, the largest producers of milk powder are New Zealand, China, Argentina and Brazil. European production of milk powder in fiscal year 2019–2020 was estimated at around 3.0 million tonnes of which the main volume was exported in bulk packing or consumer packs. Australia also has a significant milk powder export industry, exporting over 13,000 tonnes of skim and whole milk powder in fiscal year 2020–2021, to a value of approximately AUD $83 000 000. Brands on the market include Nido, from the company Nestlé, Incolac from the company Milcobel, Dutch Lady from FrieslandCampina and Puck from Arla Foods. Some of the largest businesses in the industry are Nestlé, Danone, Lactalis, Fonterra, FrieslandCampina, Dean Foods, Arla Foods, Dairy Farmers of America, Kraft Foods, Saputo, and Parmalat.
The thiol group in proteins can usually be oxidized in the following ways, where GSH is glutathione, GSSG is glutathione disulfide, RSH is a protein containing a thiol group with R being the protein residue.2 RSH → RSSR + 2 H+ + 2 e−Disulfide formation stabilizes protein folded structure. Reduction of disulfinide protein can be done by thioredoxin or thioredoxin reductase. It common in secreted and membrane proteins that require a certain mechanical property to function, such as keratin. It is used for protein regulation, such as in the ferredoxin-thioredoxin system. RSH + GSSG ⇌ RSSG + GSH Glutathionylation is common in the cytosol and mitochondria. It can protect the reactive thiol, and it also can perform post-translational regulation of the protein. Reduction of glutathionylated protein can be done by GSH or glutaredoxin.
=== Chronic hand eczema === Alitretinoin has been granted prescription rights in the UK (08/09/2008) for in chronic hand eczema as used by mouth. In May 2009 the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) issued preliminary guidance on the use of alitretinoin for the treatment of severe chronic hand eczema in adults. The recommendation stated that only patients with severe chronic hand eczema who are unresponsive to potent topical corticosteroids, oral immunosuppressants or phototherapy should receive the drug. Final NICE guidance was expected in August 2009.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Semax is a synthetic seven-amino-acid peptide derived from a fragment of corticotropin. It is used in Russia as a nasal preparation, while elsewhere it is studied as a research compound. It is not approved as a medicine in most countries.
Its sequence corresponds to the 4-10 region of corticotropin extended by three residues. This fragment lacks the region responsible for adrenal steroid release, so it is explored for neural rather than hormonal effects. The relationship explains the compound's classification among ACTH-derived peptides.
It holds approval in Russia for several neurological indications as a nasal spray or drop formulation. Regulatory agencies in the United States and the European Union have not approved it. Products sold elsewhere are generally labeled for research use only.
Suppliers normally quote a percentage of total chromatographic peak area, most often from reversed-phase HPLC. That figure says nothing about what the remaining percentage contains, and it depends on the detection wavelength used. A mass spectrometry result is a separate and stronger check on identity.